15,000-year-old artefacts discovered along Scotland's Aberdeen bypass

Artefacts and structures found during archaeological excavations on the Aberdeen Western Peripheral Route/Balmedie to Tipperty (AWPR/B-T) project are shedding light on land use and settlement in the north east over the past 15,000 years, including Mesolithic pits, Roman bread ovens, prehistoric roundhouses and a cremation complex.

A beaker from the Chalcolithic period; a fluted carinated bowl from early Neolithic times; impressed ware
from the middle Neolithic [Credit: Transport Scotland]

Since the archaeological excavations were completed, specialists have been analysing the artefacts and samples recovered from the various sites and will be detailing the results in a new limited edition book due to be published later this year.

Keith Brown, Cabinet Secretary for Economy, Jobs and Fair Work said: “When complete, the AWPR will help to reduce congestion, cut journey times, improve safety and lower pollution in Aberdeen City Centre, as well as enable local authorities to develop public transport solutions."

Cremation urn the remains found in a roundhouse and cremation complex at Nether Beanshill, dating
to the Bronze Age, from around 1,600 to 1,250 BC [Credit: Transport Scotland]

"However, the archaeology has also proven to be yet another huge benefit coming from this project, helping to shine a light on Scotland’s ancient past. The discoveries along the AWPR route, which would have remained undiscovered had the new bypass not been built, are truly remarkable and underline the importance of the value we place on meeting our environmental obligations as we plan and construct this new infrastructure.”

Bruce Mann, Archaeologist for Aberdeenshire Council and Aberdeen City Council, explained: "There has been a range of fascinating discoveries from the archaeological works carried out on site. Some raise more questions than they answer about what we thought we knew about the north east. For instance, a very unexpected discovery was the presence of Roman activity at Milltimber, likely dating from around 83/84 AD. Ninety bread ovens were uncovered, which were probably constructed by the Roman army at a time of invasion led by the Roman General Agricola. However, no evidence of an associated camp was found, which is unusual for these types of features. We can only speculate as to why the ovens were at this specific location, and what it says about what was happening in the area at the time.”

Bread ovens used by invading Roman soldiers around 83/84 AD at Milltimber
[Credit: Transport Scotland]

"Going back to the very earliest finds, there was also evidence of stone tool production dating between about 13,000 and 10,000 BC at Milltimber, a near unprecedented body of evidence which pushes back our understanding of human activity in north east Scotland by several thousand years. The same site revealed spreads of flints along with large pits dating between 10,000 BC to 4,100 BC that could have been used by hunter-gatherers to trap deer, elks or aurochs (an ancestor of modern bison). What is particularly exciting is that these finds have been made in an area where our knowledge is rapidly expanding through research projects such as Mesolithic Deeside.”

The discoveries made during the works were not confined to the environs of the River Dee. A structure dating between 7,000 BC to 6,700 BC was also found at Standingstones, in the hills to the west of Dyce. This tent-like shelter was likely only used for a few nights by a small group of people while they collected nuts, berries and tubers or hunted animals in the immediate area.

Hammerstone and cores from digs from Wester Hatton
[Credit: Transport Scotland]

Bruce continued: “Bronze Age activity was identified from Nether Beanshill in the form of a roundhouse and contemporary cremation complex dating from around 1,600 to 1,250 BC.BC. The burial comprised of an urn in which the cremated remains of an individual in their 20s had been placed. This urn was placed in a pit which was then marked by a horseshoe-shaped arrangement of timber posts. Two other similar burials were covered by miniature mounds and surrounded by small ditches.”

Although artefacts of a wide range of dates, materials and types were discovered across the scheme, a particularly well-preserved Beaker period pot found in a post-hole at Milltimber was a highlight. The pot was completely intact when it was found and must have been placed in the ground with a great deal of care. It dates to between 2,400 BC to around 2,200/2,000 BC.

Quern Stone with a hand-stone found in Wester Hatton
[Credit: Transport Scotland]

Bruce added: “These archaeological finds provide real insight into the history and culture of the north east. They are impressive in both in time depth and range of activities represented. They push back known human activity in the region by at least 2,000 years, add new detail to how our ancestors lived and died, and reveal a new dimension to Rome’s invasions of Scotland.”

Leader of Aberdeenshire Council Cllr Jim Gifford added: “The AWPR project isn’t just about construction of the route itself, as important as that is. It’s also about our relationship with the environment and the history of the north-east of Scotland.

Beaker pot found at Milltimber dating from between 2,400 to 2,000 BC
[Credit: Transport Scotland] 

“The book, when it becomes available later this year, captures a slice of history and I would like to thank Bruce and those who worked on this element of the scheme for their hard work in producing this excellent document.”

Aberdeen City Council transport and regeneration spokesman Councillor Ross Grant said: “The archaeology finds are fascinating and highlight just how rich the entire area is in history. It is interesting to find out how our forebearers lived and the Roman bread ovens found at Milltimber paint a picture of everyday life of the incoming army while they were invading."

Remains of a roundhouse found at Gairnhill
[Credit: Transport Scotland]

“While modern-day residents are looking forward to the completion of the AWPR and the benefits it will bring to Aberdeen and the surrounding area, I’m sure they will find these discoveries interesting.”

Other excavations include a small hub of Iron Age activity at Goval dating from around the first and second centuries AD where a roundhouse of around 10 metres in diameter was found which would have provided space to live comfortably. The roundhouse was built of vertical wooden posts supporting a large conical thatched roof and there would have been a central hearth. An area of stone paving – or work surface – was also found outside the entrance of the building.

A furnace found nearby showed evidence of iron smelting, the process of extracting iron from ore. The ore which was most likely extracted from nearby peat bogs, would have been heated in the furnace causing the iron to separate and pool in the bottom of the furnace.

Source: Scottish Government [February 26, 2018]

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Life in Britain during twilight of Roman empire revealed by rings

Researchers from Newcastle and Oxford Universities have for the first time catalogued in detail each of the 54 Brancaster-type rings known to exist in the UK today and say that they can be dated with confidence due to their design and the material they’re made from.

Roman 'Brancaster type' gold finger ring [Credit: Portable Antiquities Scheme]

Named after the Roman Fort and Norfolk village where the first example was discovered in the mid-19th century, a Brancaster ring is a type of signet ring with a characteristic square or rectangular bezel, inscribed with characters or text.

Most of the 54 rings are made from silver, and a small number from gold. This contrasts with the early Roman period when the majority of rings tended to be made from bronze. They are also different to early Anglo Saxon rings, which were much plainer and rarer.

As well as being worn as an item of jewellery, they were commonly used with wax to seal letters and other important documents. Seals were also often used as a security device to protect belongings in the home and while in transit.

Writing in the German journal Bonner Jahrbücher, the research team say that the fact the rings are made from precious metals and were used with important documents and goods point to them being owned by wealthy, educated individuals – the elite of British society at the time.

Dr James Gerrard, Senior Lecturer in Roman Archaeology, explains: “These were ostentatious rings and would have been a very visible sign of the wearer’s status and their confidence in expressing themselves as a Roman citizen.

“The fifth century was a period of major upheaval and marked the start of the transition from Roman Empire to Anglo Saxon Britain. These rings and their inscriptions provide a glimpse of what Britain was like during these years and give an insight into the dress, beliefs, ideologies and education level of the elite at the time.”

One famous Brancaster ring, the Senicianus ring, is thought to have inspired JRR Tolkien to write The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings trilogy. The gold ring has been linked to a Roman curse tablet found at the site of a Roman temple in 1785, which said: ‘To the god Nodens: Silvianus has lost his ring and promises half its value to Nodens. Among those named Senecianus, let none enjoy health until he brings it back to the temple of Nodens.’ Nearly 150 years later, archaeologist Sir Mortimer Wheeler is believed to have discussed the ring with Tolkien, who was Professor of Anglo-Saxon at Oxford University at the time, after realising the ring could potentially be the one referred to by the curse.

The rings were discovered over several years at sites predominantly in the south and east of Britain.  Some were found during archaeological excavations at known villa locations but many were found as part of buried hoards alongside other artefacts such as coins and jewellery. A large number of rings were also discovered by metal-detectorists and reported to the Portable Antiquities Scheme.

Many of the hoards that include these rings also contain large numbers of late Roman silver coins. In many cases these coins have been clipped around the edges. Tampering with coins was illegal during the Roman period and it is believed that this clipping dates to the fifth century. This is further evidence of the fifth-century date of the rings.

The rings are engraved with a wide variety of designs. Some have what appear to be portraits of the emperor, soldiers or lovers while others feature several dolphins and mythical sea creatures such as sea griffins, which are frequently depicted in late Roman art.

In addition, many of the rings also bear references to Christianity, either in the inscription or the images depicted on the bezel, such as doves or peacocks. These images have long been associated with Christianity, which had started to spread across the Roman Empire from the fourth century, when Constantine the Great converted and encouraged other Roman citizens to convert.

Dr Gerrard adds: “Taken together, the use of silver and gold, the Christian iconography, the style of the designs and their associations with clipped silver coins, all point to Brancaster rings being of a particular time – in this case, we can be confident in firmly placing them at the very end fourth and in the fifth century.”

Source: Newcastle University [February 24, 2018]

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Ancient Roman boxing gloves found during dig at Hadrian's Wall

Archaeologists have unearthed two "extremely rare" Roman boxing gloves during an excavation at the site of a fort on Hadrian's Wall.

The gloves resemble leather padded bands rather than the full-hand versions used in modern boxing
[Credit: The Vindolanda Trust]

Researchers said they believed the gloves, which can still "sit comfortably on a modern hand", were most likely used for sparring and practice.

They were found at the Vindolanda fort near Hexham in northern England in the middle of last year.

"I have seen representations of Roman boxing gloves depicted on bronze statues, paintings and sculptures, but to have the privilege of finding two real leather examples is exceptionally special," Vindolanda Trust CEO and director of excavations Andrew Birley said.

"What really makes Vindolanda so unique is the range of organic objects that we find. Every one of them brings you closer to the people who lived here nearly 2,000 years ago. But the hairs stand up on the back of your neck when you realise that you have discovered something as astonishing as these boxing gloves."

A print from an engraving showing gladiators boxing [Credit: Historical Picture Archive/Corbis via Getty Images]

Unlike the modern boxing glove, the ancient examples have the appearance of a protective guard; designed to fit snugly over the knuckles, protecting them from impact.

The larger of the two gloves was cut from a single piece of leather and was folded into a pouch.

The glove was packed with natural material, acting as a shock absorber.

A number of other valuable relics were recovered on the dig, including swords, "wafer thin" writing tablets, leather shoes, bath clogs, combs and dice.

Source: ABC News Website [February 22, 2018]

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Pots, people and knowledge transfer

In the Late Neolithic, a new style of pottery appears among the grave goods buried with the dead in many parts of Europe. A new genetic study shows that, with one exception, its dissemination was not accompanied by large-scale migration.

"Das Bode-Becher" of Quedlinburg, Germany [Credit: K. Ulrich /Landesamt für Denkmalpflege
und Archäologie Sachsen-Anhalt]

At the end of the Neolithic, on the threshold to the Early Bronze Age, around 2600 BCE, a new set of religious beliefs began to spread across Europe. This is indicated in the archaeological record above else by the appearance of a novel form of pottery among the grave goods buried with the dead. These highly characteristic, decorated vessels are known as bell beakers, and their dissemination from Spain as far as Hungary, and across Northwestern Europe into Britain is known as the Bell Beaker phenomenon.

A team made up of geneticists and archaeologists has now explored whether the diffusion of these pots was driven by the influx of new migrants. Their findings appear in the latest issue of the journal Nature. The new study, for the first time, combines archaeological data relating to the distribution and ages of the Bell Beaker phenomenon in Europe with genetic analysis of human DNA sequences obtained from skeletal remains dated to the same period. This approach has enabled the team to compare the spread of the bell beakers (pots) with that of the migrants (people) who brought the new ideology. The results indicate that the diffusion of the pottery in continental Europe was not accompanied by large-scale migration.

"The study demonstrates that the spread of cultural elements need not involve migrational movements. In this case, it was the ideas that were propagated," says Professor Philipp Stockhammer of the Institute for Prehistoric and Protohistoric Archaeology at Ludwig-Maximilians-Universitaet (LMU) in Munich, one of the leading archaeologists among the authors. The results refute the long accepted theory that the spread of the new religion through Western and Central Europe was associated with significant incursions of migrants. Britain, however, represents a striking exception to this. Here, the appearance of the Bell Beaker phenomenon coincides with genetic evidence for the arrival of large numbers of migrants from continental Europe.

In the course of their investigation, the authors obtained DNA sequence data from 400 human skeletons, making it the largest study of ancient DNA carried out so far. This material had been excavated from 136 different sites, most of them in Britain, Spain and Germany. The new DNA samples from Germany originated from excavations carried out in the Valley of the River Lech. In a recent paper based on material from this area, Philipp Stockhammer reported evidence that reveals the surprising mobility of women in the Bronze Age.

"We will now have to compare these three regions in order to determine the degree of spatial variability in mobility across the transition from the Neolithic to the Early Bronze Age," he says. The ability to recover and analyze ancient DNA from human burials on such a large scale was made possible by the advent of new techniques. These advances will usher in "a new era in palaeogenetics," he adds.

Indeed, Stockhammer himself is among the authors of a second article in the same issue of Nature. This paper looks at the pattern of migration of farmers and herders from Anatolia into Southeastern Europe 8500 years ago. That study also uses ancient DNA to reveal how the resident hunter-gatherer population reacted to the arrival of the newcomers. In some areas the two groups lived together and in other regions, they avoided contact and lived apart for hundreds of years. In the Danube Valley, the evidence suggests that some of the new farming communities subsequently abandoned agriculture and adopted the hunter-gatherer lifestyle favored by the locals.

Source: Ludwig-Maximilians-Universitat Munchen [February 22, 2018]

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Figure of medieval demon found under Lincoln's Eastern Bypass site

Archaeologists from Network Archaeology Ltd have teamed up with Lincolnshire Live to reveal more about the incredible artifacts from a dig along part of the route of Lincoln's Eastern Bypass.

Stone corbel in the Romanesque style, 1140-1160 AD [Credit: Working Pictures Ltd]

Here, Dr Richard Moore and director Christopher Taylor continue their Find of the Week series, and this week they share a truly amazing find pulled from the mud...

"It’s an alien!" - that was the first response of almost every member of the team when they first saw this week’s Find of the Week emerging from the mud.

But a photograph hastily emailed to our lovely back-up team of specialists provided a more sensible identification: it’s a carved stone corbel in the Romanesque style, probably from a church or chapel, and likely to date between 1140 and 1160 AD.

It shows the head of a devilish beast, with large staring eyes. Between its wide-open jaws, is a person’s face.

The stone has partly weathered away but it is still possible to make out the mouth and eyes of this poor victim, having a last look at the world before being swallowed.

This kind of corbel is usually known as a ‘grotesque’, and this particular type is called a ‘beakhead’: many of them look like nightmarish birds, with wide open beaks.

But ours is definitely a beast, with cute pointed ears at the back of its head.

The dig at the Lincoln bypass [Credit: Lincolnshire City Council]

The imagery seems strange to us today but to the uneducated and unsophisticated congregations of the Middle Ages, devils and demons were a very real presence.

The image would have been used by the priests in their sermons to graphically show the fate that awaits unrepentant sinners.

Beakhead corbels were particularly in vogue in the century or so after the conquest of Britain by the Norman French in 1066.

Before then, most village churches were simple wooden buildings, but William the Conqueror’s invasion force and their descendants set about rebuilding in stone, driving home the message that they were now the new landowners. Our example is particularly finely sculpted.

The tradition of depicting devils in architecture carried on into the next century, and included, of course, everyone’s favourite little devil: the Lincoln Imp, perched on one of the corbels of the Angel Choir in the cathedral.

We are left with the question of what this corbel was doing in the mud of the Witham valley, at Washingborough.

Was it part of one of the monastic grange buildings that we know were nearby, or was there a working area here, where stone-masons produced pieces to order from the limestones of the Lincoln Cliff?

Author: Paul Whitelam | Source: Lincolnshire Live [February 21, 2018]

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Ancient DNA tells tales of humans' migrant history

Scientists once could reconstruct humanity's distant past only from the mute testimony of ancient settlements, bones, and artifacts.

The use of stylized bell-shaped pots like this one from Sierentz, France spread across Europe
beginning about 4,700 years ago. DNA analysis show that this so-called Bell Beaker culture
was brought to Britain by people who largely replaced the island's existing inhabitants
 [Credit: Anthony Denaire]

No longer. Now there's a powerful new approach for illuminating the world before the dawn of written history - reading the actual genetic code of our ancient ancestors. Two papers published in the journal Nature, more than double the number of ancient humans whose DNA has been analyzed and published to 1,336 individuals - up from just 10 in 2014.

The new flood of genetic information represents a "coming of age" for the nascent field of ancient DNA, says lead author David Reich, a Howard Hughes Medical Institute investigator at Harvard Medical School - and it upends cherished archaeological orthodoxy. "When we look at the data, we see surprises again and again and again," says Reich.

Together with his lab's previous work and that of other pioneers of ancient DNA, the Big Picture message is that our prehistoric ancestors were not nearly as homebound as once thought. "There was a view that migration is a very rare process in human evolution," Reich explains. Not so, says the ancient DNA. Actually, Reich says, "the orthodoxy - the assumption that present-day people are directly descended from the people who always lived in that same area - is wrong almost everywhere."

Instead, "the view that's emerging - for which David is an eloquent advocate - is that human populations are moving and mixing all the time," says John Novembre, a computational biologist at the University of Chicago.

Stonehenge's Builders Largely Vanish

In the first new Nature paper, Reich and a cast of dozens of collaborators chart the spread of an ancient culture known by its stylized bell-shaped pots, the so-called Bell Beaker phenomenon. This culture first spread between Iberia and central Europe beginning about 4,700 years ago. By analyzing DNA from several hundred samples of human bones, Reich's team shows that only the ideas - not the people who originated them - made the move initially. That's because the genes of the Iberian population remain distinct from those of the central Europeans who adopted the characteristic pots and other artifacts.

But the story changes when the Bell Beaker culture expanded to Britain after 4,500 years ago. Then, it was brought by migrants who almost completely supplanted the island's existing inhabitants - the mysterious people who had built Stonehenge - within a few hundred years. "There was a sudden change in the population of Britain," says Reich. "It was an almost complete replacement."

For archaeologists, these and other findings from the study of ancient DNA are "absolutely sort of mind-blowing," says archaeologist Barry Cunliffe, a professor emeritus at the University of Oxford. "They are going to upset people, but that is part of the excitement of it."

Vast Migration from the Steppe

Consider the unexpected movement of people who originally lived on the steppes of Central Asia, north of the Black and Caspian seas. About 5,300 years ago, the local hunter-gatherer cultures were replaced in many places by nomadic herders, dubbed the Yamnaya, who were able to expand rapidly by exploiting horses and the new invention of the cart, and who left behind big, rich burial sites.

DNA from people from the Bell Beaker culture (illustration of one man shown) reveal that
they descended from nomadic herders who migrated from the steppes of Central Asia
[Credit: Manuel Rojo-Guerra/Luis Pascual-Repiso]

Archaeologists have long known that some of the technologies used by the Yamnaya later spread to Europe. But the startling revelation from the ancient DNA was that the people moved, too - all the way to the Atlantic coast of Europe in the west to Mongolia in the east and India in the south. This vast migration helps explain the spread of Indo-European languages. And it significantly replaced the local hunter-gatherer genes across Europe with the indelible stamp of steppe DNA, as happened in Britain with the migration of the Bell Beaker people to the island.

"This whole phenomenon of the steppe expansion is an amazing example of what ancient DNA can show," says Reich. And, adds Cunliffe, "no one, not even archeologists in their wildest dreams, had expected such a high steppe genetic content in the populations of northern Europe in the third millennium B.C."

This ancient DNA finding also explains the "strange result" of a genetic connection that had been hinted at in the genomes of modern-day Europeans and Native Americans, adds Chicago's Novembre. The link is evidence from people who lived in Siberia 24,000 years ago, whose telltale DNA is found both in Native Americans, and in the Yamnaya steppe populations and their European descendants.

New Insights from Southeastern Europe

Reich's second new Nature paper, on the genomic history of southeastern Europe, reveals an additional migration as farming spread across Europe, based on data from 255 individuals who lived between 14,000 and 2,500 years ago. It also adds a fascinating new nugget - the first compelling evidence that the genetic mixing of populations in Europe was biased toward one sex.

Hunter-gatherer genes remaining in northern Europeans after the influx of migrating farmers came more from males than females, Reich's team found. "Archaeological evidence shows that when farmers first spread into northern Europe, they stopped at a latitude where their crops didn't grow well," he says. "As a result, there were persistent boundaries between the farmers and the hunter-gatherers for a couple of thousand years." This gave the hunter-gatherers and farmers a long time to interact. According to Reich, one speculative scenario is that during this long, drawn-out interaction, there was a social or power dynamic in which farmer women tended to be integrated into hunter-gatherer communities.

So far that's only a guess, but the fact that ancient DNA provides clues about the different social roles and fates of men and women in ancient society "is another way, I think, that these data are so extraordinary," says Reich.

Advanced Machines

These scientific leaps forward have been fueled by three key developments. One is the dramatic cost reduction (and speed increase) in gene sequencing made possible by advanced machines from Illumina and other companies. The second is a discovery spearheaded by Ron Pinhasi, an archaeologist at University College Dublin. His group showed that the petrous bone, containing the tiny inner ear, harbours 100 times more DNA than other ancient human remains, offering a huge increase in the amount of genetic material available for analysis. The third is a method implemented by Reich for reading the genetic codes of 1.2 million carefully chosen variable parts of DNA (known as single nucleotide polymorphisms) rather than having to sequence entire genomes. That speeds the analysis and reduces its cost even further.

The new field made a splash when Svante Pääbo of the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, working with Reich and many other colleagues, used ancient DNA to prove that Neanderthals and humans interbred. Since then, the number of ancient humans whose DNA Reich has analyzed has risen exponentially. His lab has generated about three-quarters of the world's published data and, included unpublished data, has now reached 3,700 genomes. "Every time we jump an order of magnitude in the number of individuals, we can answer questions that we couldn't even have asked before," says Reich.

Now, with hundreds of thousands of ancient skeletons (and their petrous bones) still to be analyzed, the field of ancient DNA is poised to both pin down current questions and tackle new ones. For example, Reich's team is working with Cunliffe and others to study more than 1,000 samples from Britain to more accurately measure the replacement of the island's existing gene pool by the steppe-related DNA from the Bell Beaker people. "The evidence we have for a 90 percent replacement is very, very suggestive, but we need to test it a bit more to see how much of the pre-Beaker population really survived," explains Cunliffe.

Beyond that, ancient DNA offers the promise of studying not only the movements of our distant ancestors, but also the evolution of traits and susceptibilities to diseases. "This is a new scientific instrument that, like the microscope when it was invented in the seventeenth century, makes it possible to study aspects of biology that simply were not possible to examine before," explains Reich. In one example, scientists at the University of Copenhagen found DNA from plague in the steppe populations. If the groups that migrated to Britain after 4,500 years ago brought the disease with them, that could help explain why the existing population shrank so quickly.

With the possibility of many such discoveries still ahead, "it is a very exciting time," says Cunliffe. "Ancient DNA is going to revitalize archeology in a way that few of us could have guessed even ten years ago."

Source: Howard Hughes Medical Institute [February 21, 2018]

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Iron Age hill fort remains found in Margate Caves area

Archaeologists excavating an area in Margate, a seaside town in the district of Thanet in Kent, England, have discovered the remains of an Iron Age hill fort. The find came as part of an archaeological dig at the Margate Caves site.

Remains of an Iron Age hill fort have been uncovered during excavation work to restore a series of caves in Kent.
Researchers discovered a defensive ditch during routine excavation as part of the redevelopment
[Credit: Dr Paul Wilkinson/SWAT Archaeology]

Last year, the Margate Caves Community Education Trust announced it successfully bid for more than £420,000 from the Big Lottery Fund last year. It is hoped that the centre will reopen in 2019.

The ancient fort remains were found in the area of the proposed ticket office of the centre.

Dr Paul Wilkinson, of SWAT Archaeology, said: "Margate Caves, also known as Vortigern's Cavern, are a set of galleries radiating out from a rectangular shaft. The chalk mine was probably worked between the late 17th and early 18th centuries."

The fortification is thought to be part of a wider encampment, believed to have been a defensive position since
pre-history through to the Napoleonic era [Credit: Dr Paul Wilkinson/SWAT Archaeology]

"In 1798 the caves were found by a gardener. The houseowner, Forster, had the caves opened and employed a local artist, Brazier, to create carvings and paint scenes on the walls. The caves were used for storage, a wine cellar and as a grotto. A number of modifications were made to the caves during this period, with new features and passages being cut."

From 1835 until 1863 the caves went unused.

"They were then rented by a shopkeeper, John Norwood, who opened them to the public under the name of Vortigern's Cavern." Dr Wilkinson added.